Buddhism Vehicles
In order to clarify the variations between the many different schools and
traditions of Buddhism, the schools are often divided into the three Yanas,
meaning 'Vehicles' or 'Paths'. These three are: the Hinayana, Mahayana and Tantrayana.
Within the various vehicles, much variation can still exist, which is further
explained in the pages that deal with the traditions, like Zen and Tibetan Buddhism.
A
major reason for this development of different schools within Buddhism may be
that the Buddha taught for decades. Given the vast amount of teachings it is
not easy to unanimously decide what the exact interpretation of all teachings
should be, or even how to summarise them logically.
Depending on who the Buddha would be teaching to, the explanation would be quite
different and sometimes seemingly contradictory. This can be understood as skilful
means; a satisfying explanation to a learned philosopher is probably too complex
for an uneducated person. On top of this, the Buddha clearly stated that he
did not just intend to teach a doctrine, but intended to show the path that
people can follow for their own development. This intention ultimately leads
to the point where every individual has to decide which practices to follow
and how to interpret the teachings, rather than adhering to a fixed doctrine.
THERAVADA AND HINAYANA: The Theravada tradition is based on the set of
teachings decided by the Third Council to contain the teachings of the Buddha.
Shri Lanka has played a central role in preserving the Theravada scriptures
and practices. After the Third Council, the Tripitaka collection of sutras were
taken to Shri Lanka. Most of these were originally in the Pali language, but
some were compiled in other languages.
Through the centuries however, all teachings were translated into Pali (around
35 BCE). Initially, most ordained Sangha were known as parivrajahas (wanderers).
They would assemble during the rainy season when travelling became problematic.
Gradually, buildings were donated and the Sangha became more static. Just a
century after the Buddha passed away, monasteries became the main mechanism
for preservation of the teachings.
Also extra monastic rules were introduced. Only during one short period in history
Buddhism was banned in Shri Lanka, but it was later restored with teachings
from Thailand which in turn had originated in Shri Lanka. The main countries
where the Theravada tradition is currently alive and well in Shri Lanka, Thailand,
Burma, Cambodia and Laos.
The teachings on the Four Noble Truths and meditation form the basis of Theravada
practice.
The term Hinayana (smaller Vehicle) appeared only much later, around the first
century CE, when teachings of a different nature appeared which were called
Mahayana (greater Vehicle).
In India, non-Mahayana or Hinayana sects developed independent from the form
of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today, there is no Hinayana tradition in
existence anywhere, although Theravada could be called the tradition most like
Hinayana. The ultimate goal of the Theravadin and other non-Mahayana practice
is to attain the state of an Arhat, as Buddhahood is considered practically
unachievable for nearly everyone within this aeon.
Although
helping other sentient beings is accepted as an important Buddhist practice,
the main motivation for following the spiritual path is to achieve liberation
for oneself - Nirvana.
Due to the negative connotation of the term Hinayana, the World Fellowship of
Buddhists decided that the term Hinayana should be dropped to refer to Buddhism
existing today, and the term Theravada should be applied, also because the term
Hinayana has a negative connotation.
MAHAYANA: The Mahayana appears to have developed between the 1st Century
BC to the 1st Century CE. About the 2nd Century CE Mahayana became clearly defined.
Master Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata (emptiness) and
proved that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. After
the 1st Century CE., the Mahayanists took a definite stand and only then the
terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced.
Around the first century CE, teachings of a different style appeared. The terms
Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the Sutra
of the Lotus of the Good Law. Of great influence to the development of the Mahayana
was Master Nagarjuna (2nd Century CE) who is known for his profound teachings
on the philosophy of emptiness. About the 4th Century CE, the Masters Asanga
and Vasubandhu wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. The Mahayana teachings
were mainly written down in Sanskrit, and are now called the Mahayana Sutras.
A clear division arose between the schools following the traditional teachings
and Mahayana. Although the main philosophical differences may be small, they
have profound consequences for the practices involved.
The Mahayana philosophy is based on the older tradition and fully accepts these
teachings, but not all traditional interpretations. One of the most important
aspects is for example the traditional interpretation that Buddhahood can be
achieved only by very few people.
The Mahayana teaches instead that every sentient being (being with a mind) can
become a Buddha, the only thing preventing our full enlightenment is the failure
to improve one's own actions and state of mind. The Mahayana tradition claims
that all their sutras have been taught directly by Shakyamuni Buddha or have
at least been inspired by the Buddha.
The main Mahayana motivation is to lead all sentient beings to enlightenment.
Liberation from cyclic existence (Nirvana) and Buddhahood for oneself are regarded
simply as fortunate by-products of one's efforts to help all beings. In fact,
the only possible motivation with which one can become a Buddha is the altruistic
wish to lead all sentient beings away from suffering.
This motivation is reflected in taking an additional set of vows, known as Bodhisattva
vows on top of taking Refuge. The main vow is to free all sentient beings from
suffering. These vows are not taken for this life only, but for all future lives
as well, until this goal is achieved. The main practices of a Mahayanist are
summarised in the 6 perfections: the perfection of giving, ethics, patience,
joyous effort, concentration and wisdom.
The
Mahayana tradition mainly developed in North India, and spread further North
into China and Tibet. In China, Buddhist philosophy and practice was often mixed
with Taoist and Confucian aspects. Via China, Mahayana Buddhism also spread
to other countries like Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Japan. Also, in China
the Ch'an tradition evolved, which was introduced into Japan, and there developed
into Zen.
In contrast to the current very clear division between Theravada and Mahayana
schools, it must be noted that for many centuries, monasteries in India were
filled with monks of both traditions. It was considered a very personal decision
to choose for individual liberation or Buddhahood. The monastic and ordination
rules are the same, and the teachings overlap to a great extent.
TANTRAYANA: Around the 6th. century AD, within the Mahayana tradition
the tantras or tantric texts emerged. Based firmly on the Hinayana and Mahayana
tradition, the actual philosophy differs only slightly from the Mahayana, but
the practices can be quite different.
Prior to engaging in tantric practices, a proper understanding of the Hinayana
and Mahayana philosophy is considered essential. Only then should one obtain
initiation or permission from a qualified tantric master to do a specific tantric
practice. Tantric practices are psychologically very profound techniques to
quickly achieve Buddhahood. This is considered important, not for oneself, but
because as a Buddha one has the best achievable qualities to help others. The
motivation is: 'the faster I can achieve Buddhahood, the sooner I can be of
maximum benefit to others'.
Depending on the class of tantra, extra vows may need to be taken on top of
the Refuge and Bodhisattva vows. Also, specific commitments may be required
like doing a specific retreat, daily recitation of mantras or a daily meditation
practice. In the 8th. century, the Mahayana and Tantrayana (or Vajrayana) traditions
of (North) Indian Buddhism were introduced into Tibet. In fact, only in Tibet,
Bhutan and Mongolia a virtually complete set of tantric teachings was preserved.
The Tibetan tradition can also be found in the Himalayan range of Ladakh (Northwest
India), Sikkhim (Northeast India) and Nepal, and in Mongolia (which is virtually
identical to the Tibetan tradition). In China and countries like Korea and Japan,
remnants of Vajrayana can be found. The term Sutrayana is used within the Mahayana
to indicate the non-tantric Mahayana teachings.
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